<h1>Real World Applications</h1><h2>Future Directions for Ceramic Analysis in Southeast Asian Archaeology</h2>Inasmuch as I have in the course of this dissertation attempted to be comprehensive in my analyses, is it undeniable that the conclusions made at all levels suffer from investigative biases (even beyond those concerning the material of choice, as outlined above), which only magnify at the higher resolutions.Each SEM-electron microprobe analysis area ranges from about 0.2mm2 to 1.4mm2. Even with four electron images per cut sherd, this still makes their total a subsample of a sample of a broken sherd, which is unto itself a subsample of (in the context of this study) an unstratified salvage deposit. While it may be hoped that intra-sherd variation remains below the error-margin of the analysis anyway (as wild fluctuations within the same fabric increase the risk of vessel failure during firing), this nevertheless remains an assumption.How may these limitations then be resolved? It would seem unproductive to take multiple samples per sherd, at least with the current semi-quantitative regime imposed by the mechanical limitations of the SEM. There exist other options such as a specialised electron microprobe, such as that employed by RLAHA's tephrochronology laboratory (Smith, 2017), or perhaps even mass, absorption or emission-spectrometry for very fine distinctions in elemental proportions (Pollard and Heron, 2008, 21-41). Counter-arguments to using these are their cost and relative time-consumption, while the quicker SEM analysis also permits a visual study of the microstructure. Nevertheless, future pilot studies may aim to determine the utility of these other methods in characterising commonalities and differences in ceramic and glaze production.Even then, such data would be limited in value without a similar basis for comparison; Wood (1999) cites all his oxide proportions to 1 decimal place, and increasing resolution of new measurements beyond those would not be useful. In order to make a truly instructive conclusions from such data once a preferred method is settled upon, a whole suite of material from a variety of contexts —Chinese and Southeast Asian, terrestrial and shipwreck — will have to be sampled for body and glaze compositions, perhaps finally resolving mysteries concerning ceramic traditions and transmission thereof in both knowledge and produce; the addition of data from local kilns will make considerable progress towards overturning Sinocentric models and assumptions concerning high-fired ceramics.

A Framework for the Study of “Mercury Jars” and Other Stoneware - Future Directions

<h1>Conclusions</h1>The implications of this study are clear: it is possible to make distinctions within and between KTC and STA stoneware, and to compare these with contemporary Chinese kiln technologies, on an objective, statistically sound, level based on the chemistry of their vessels, little-studied on a rigorous scientific basis till now.The next challenge is equally clear: to what extent are these statistical distinctions archaeologically useful? I have hoped to demonstrate that the clustering and shifts in means of key oxide components of body chemistry have suggested changes in ceramic production and diversification in market-demand from KTC to STA with the notable exception of the coalescence of the mercury-jar industry, and that although the ceramic body technologies at both bear superficial similarities to Chinese recipes that their glaze formulations belie a more nuanced picture, even suggesting at the emergence of kilns outside the Chinese main complexes.Beyond this picture painted by this body and glaze stoichiometry, what further impact can this study have concerning the archaeology of Southeast Asia's antiquity? To this end we must return to the axioms upon which this study is based, namely the study of economic and social networks in the region in accordance with the state of scientific investigation of its material history.<h2>Trade and Exchange of Stoneware (and More) in Southeast Asia, 12th-15th Centuries</h2>In summing up the patterns of human behaviour which can be inferred from the stoichiometry of these sherds and the implications on the historic antiquity of Southeast Asia, it is worthwhile to take a step back and look at these patterns in the larger context of trade and exchange within the region.<a target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer nofollow" href="http://region.Trade">Trade</a> channels and connexions existed as more than just means of conveying stoneware (or goods contained therein) from one point to another. Similarly, it would be fallacious to assume every site was a scale-model microcosm of overall trends, even when attempting to differentiate Kota Cina and Singapore by both geographical and temporal distance. Stoneware hence only tell us part — albeit a hitherto overlooked part — of the dynamics which governed people's lives in these times.Firstly, even within ceramics it is clear that earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain fulfilled very different roles in society, which also undoubtedly differed by the various strata between and within elites and non-elites. Although I have assumed that both Kota Cina and St. Andrew's Cathedral are non-elite settlements, I have invoked STA's proximity to elites resident on "Forbidden Hill" to account for its greater variability. Having demonstrated that we may have to look beyond surveyed Chinese kilns for the source of the glazed sherds (not to mention the compositional outliers), further questions are raised concerning the means (i.e. upon which ships) from and through which they were brought from kilns to ports, and onwards dispersed to settlements. Although shipwrecks can tell us much about the ratios of ceramic vessels upon them, it is necessary to assume their representativeness of trade in the region as a whole.This brings us to a more contentious issue: namely, the un-representativeness of pottery with regards to trade and exchange as a whole. Inasmuch as ceramics are highly versatile in use and highly taphonomically resistant, permitting study of their essentially unaltered body and glaze fabrics centuries from their final discard or archival, pots cannot be eaten, shaped into (dedicated) tools or learnt from (except perhaps by imitation.) As Fahy (2014) surmises concerning contemporary maritime shipwrecks, ceramics benefit from the wealth of existing literature, whilst metal artefacts and ingots, and especially organic remains, are generally sidelined.Unsurprisingly, a comprehensive picture only can only truly emerge through the analysis of these multiple dimensions, perhaps first through simple comparison of terrestrial and maritime deposits and seeing if settlements, or combinations of settlements, can account for the volumes of trade seen on the seas; following this, real efforts will have to made concerning the bio-archaeology and materials science of the more perishable goods to gain understandings as to their norms and variability concerning both producers and recipients.Perhaps through harmonising all of these, it may one day be possible to gain a fleeting glance of the most ephemeral exchanged commodities — the ideologies and philosophies which were espoused, shared, and debated by the inhabitants of these polities, through using these more tangible lines of evidence as proxies.

Conclusion of my Master's Thesis as it relates to studying trade and exchange

A Framework for the Study of “Mercury Jars” and Other Stoneware - Interpretation (Trade and Exchange of Stoneware [and more] in Southeast Asia)

<h1>Discussion</h1><h2>Body fabrics</h2>Now, we shall aim to contextualise the elemental compositions and variations found within and between the archaeological sites within the greater context of ceramics being traded at the time. To make archaeological sense of this data, it has been re-plotted on slightly different axes, utilising the known properties and attitudes concerning the various oxides used in stoneware and porcelain production.There exist numerous analyses in Wood (1999) concerning Chinese high-fired ceramics, and it is these normalised results (also expressed in compound%) of selected porcelains and stonewares which have been employed, primarily of Southern China in keeping with the research questions concerning trade and exchange from Guangzhou and Quanzhou. It is necessary to qualify that several biases are inherited from the use of this text as the main body of comparison, namely the focus on porcelains and Chinese produce; nevertheless, it will suffice as a reflection of ceramic technologies available to contemporary potters.This comparison will be based on the pure similarity in compositional proportions as there exist insufficient data points to conduct full statistical analysis and pairwise t-tests; therefore, all the similarity between points suggests is the possibility that the technologies and recipes underlying these ceramic formulae came from the same body of knowledge.<h3>Fe2O3 vs. Al2O3/SiO2</h3>With regards to ferrous content vis-à-vis the alumina/silica ratio, kilns on the whole tend to be differentiated by their Fe2O3 concentrations whilst variability in both contemporary firings and trends over time is more discernible by the change in Al203/Si02.We can see that the group with which the KTC and STA stonewares shares the most affinity in both dimensions is that of the Hangzhou Guan wares. Totally equating them with the production sequences represented by the Hangzhou kilns would, however, be fallacious as Guan wares are a precise formulation derived from the need for the retention of exterior quality despite an artificial dearth of clay materials for the bodies, hence the infamously thick glazes (Wood and Li, 2015, 628-629).The other kilns with which the KTC and STA wares broadly correlate are Longquan, with their distribution essentially being neatly sandwiched between the Longquan porcelains, their Dayao celadons and Longquan Guan wares. Hence it is possible that the Chinese ceramics at both sites derived from the same technological suite available to the Longquan potters, a conclusions which dovetails neatly with the known trends concerning the rise of Zhejiang kilns channelled through Quanzhou over the period represented by both sites. The ferrous proportions of Jingdezhen wares suggest a more concerted effort in selecting against these than at the other kilns.KTC and STA wares notably are strongly differentiated from the high-Fe2O3 stonewares such as the Fujian-made Jian and Jiangsu-made Yixing wares; even the lateritic stonewares of STA-BRI-G do not demonstrate either the ferrous component or alumina/silicon ratio seen in those technological traditions. It is evident that STA-BUF-12(C) is truly exceptional in terms of its alumina content and probably represents a clay source which cannot be correlated with any of the kilns in this study. STA-BRI-02(B) represents the opposite scenario, where it has a smaller alumina content than the lower bound of the Southern Chinese stoneware clays surveyed by Wood (1999).However, before concluding that the Longquan kilns are the most likely candidate for the production sequences evidenced by the KTC and STA, let us look at the potassic content for further clues as to the cha'ines operatoires concerning these stonewares.<h3>K2O vs. Al2O3/SiO2</h3>The K2O content of the various body ceramics reveals a somewhat more nuanced picture than the Fe2O3 plot alone. Potassic content appears to be more variable over time than ferrous content within the same kiln. It is important to recall that potash generally needs to be added to clays as a flux, necessitating an externally derived source beyond certain levels.The range with which the KTC and STA corpus groups the best is the Hangzhou Guan wares, but its doubtful candidature has already been outlined above. Outside of this particular "match", the situation diametrically flips compared with the Fe203% vs. Al203/Si02 plot. Now, it is Jingdezhen with which the KTC and STA ceramics correspond best, as both have less potassic content than the Longquan wares. However, this is insufficient grounds to totally reject the premise outlined above.Differences in potassic content are more suggestive of technological as opposed to geological differences; the Jingdezhen and the Southeast Asian K20% values notably are well within the natural ranges expressed by the surveyed clays. It may be that the KTC and STA wares were made in a similar fashion to the Longquan porcelains, with the latter containing additional potash-rich materials relative to the stonewares to permit porcelain firing. Naturally, the opposite conclusion may be true, namely that the KTC and STA wares are derived from the same source as the Jingdezhen porcelains but less well-selected against ferrous impurities; this theory, however, raises questions as to why then their alumina content is relatively higher than most of the Jingdezhen porcelains. The sole potassic outlier, STA-BUF-06(C), is not very far off from the Longquan kilns' K20% vs. Al203/SiO2 distributions.It may be hoped that with future studies concerning these kinds of material in both China and Southeast Asia, that the compositions of these neglected "trade" stonewares may one day be similarly plotted and possibly be used to distinguish not only between source recipes but their distributions within their target markets, permitting the direct connection of ceramic sources with their ultimate destinations. Undoubtedly the addition of this independent line of evidence will allow future researchers to confirm or develop theories and trends concerning the ceramics of Southeast Asia.<h2>Glazes</h2>It is worthwhile to evaluate the KTC and STA glazes and compare them with their contemporary technologies to examine plausible antecedents for the production sequence seen in the sherds at both sites. The data, as above, has been plotted with data from Wood (1999) to this end.The first plots entail K20% vs. CaO% and are aimed at exploring the range of glaze technologies available to Chinese potters of the time. While the majority of Chinese glazes utilised lime as their primary flux, potash was also frequently used; the sherds seen in KTC and STA demonstrate that their mixture is viable as a glaze. Hence, plotting Southeast Asian and Chinese potash vs. lime ratios ought to show which technologies share the most similarity.The next two plots, concerning MgO% and P205% vs. CaO% are intended to address a perennial debate concerning sources of lime and potash. Burnt plant ash and limestone were both lime sources well-known to Chinese potters before and during KTC and STA's habitation, and identifying which contributed to the flux has implications on connections to the relevant mining and forestry industry. MgO and P205 are taken as proxies for plant ash due to their presence in minerals found in organic matter.Iron oxides were also employed as colourants by Chinese potters, and comparing their use within China to Southeast Asia would similarly allow the exploration of glaze technologies in the region; finally, the unique lead glaze in STA bears further investigation.<h3>K2O vs. CaO</h3>The glazes seen at STA and KTC exhibit K20 and CaO proportions largely similar to those seen within the remit of contemporary Chinese pottery; even the low-calcia high-potash buff wares at STA share antecedents with some of the alkali-glazes seen in China. Thus far, the idea that the Southeast Asian sherds are compatible with the technologies witness in Chinese kilns is vindicated; however, they exhibit somewhat greater variability than their Chinese counterparts, with the KTC buff wares' differences between sherd sizes marking an extreme of this trend.It is due to this variability that difficulties emerge concerning the ability to pinpoint any one kiln as being the most representative of ceramic industries supplying Singapore and Sumatra, even given evidence from the body-fabric affinities.<h3>MgO and P2O5</h3>Unlike the K2O vs. CaO plot, the Southeast Asian material stands in stark contrast with the surveyed Chinese ceramics due to their relatively elevated MgO and P2O5 content. The only wares with similar glazes differ in body composition; these were the high-iron Jian ware and the high-alumina, high-potash Jizhou ware. It is necessary to temper previous deductions with the caveats that while the Jingdezhen and Longquan kilns share body-ceramic technology with the Southeast Asian sherds, other formulae must be found for their glazes.Curiously enough, MgO and P2O5 both appear to exhibit statistically significant linear correlations with CaO, suggesting that more plant ash was being used for lime content in Southeast Asian glazes compared to the corpus surveyed by Wood (1999). Given the amount of expenditure concerning appropriate flora for such a purpose, this raises further questions concerning market trends of the era.<h3>PbO</h3>With regards to the lead flux in STA-BRI-20(G), its mean value of 20.6(±2.0)% PbO, while comparable to early Chinese lead-glazes, is considerably lower than contemporary ones (Wood, 1999, 191-196;206-210). Given the profusion of this technology and its relative ease of use, combined with the incompatibility of STA-BRI-G with Chinese iron-rich body-ceramics, this gives decreasing grounds to necessitate a Chinese origin for this one sherd.<h3>Fe2O3</h3>While for the most part the STA and KTC body-fabrics expressed ferrous components in line with Chinese ceramics and clays, here many of their Fe203% values fall directly into the gap between low-iron and high-iron oxide Chinese glazes.Among the types analysed by Wood (1999), it appears that Jizhou ware, Jian ware and Ding glazes correspond best with the Southeast Asian glazes — categories that, much like with the MgO and P205 values, share little affinity with their body compositions. The formerly straightforward Jingdezhen-Longquan dichotomy is further challenged with this added dimension of glaze technologies.It may be that the glazes seen in Southeast Asia represent a different market with different demands from Chinese customers, influencing technologies employed by kilns. Conversely, these may be glaze recipes not from China, but of outlying kilns in Southeast Asia — one candidate is Sisatchanalai in Thailand, a prolific contemporary stoneware producer (Grave et al., 2000) — and the body fabrics in fact represent their products, which have successfully copied Chinese body-ceramics but not their glazes, either by choice or due to geological limitations.Either way, these data, in conjunction with the other information from the glazes, have opened up considerable questions as to the technologies contributing to the corpus in Singapore and Sumatra and their potential origins, and it may be hoped that future work on these under-appreciated vessels may open up new lines of evidence.<h2>Summary</h2><h3>KTC and STA</h3>Overall, what can these SEM data and scatterplots truly inform us about the nature of, and changes in, stoneware production between 12th-14th century Sumatra and 14th-15th century Singapore? Having established that the suite of body ceramics available at both sites fits (for the most part) within the remit of contemporary Chinese kilns, what further detail can be teased out of the variations in measured oxides in both the body fabrics and glazes?Comparing the means of the various metrics (Al2O3, Fe2O3, K2O) chosen to explore the "quality" and production of these stonewares is perhaps most instructive in the identification of outliers which speak to the relative diversity of products received at both ports. Here, STA contains slightly more exceptions to the general ceramic ranges; its outliers are also more dramatic, such as the extremely Al2O3-rich STA-BUF-12(C), Al2O3-poor STA-BRI-02(B), Fe2O3-rich STA-BRI-G and K20-rich STA-BUF-06(C). Compounded with the presence of potassic and lead alkali glazes, these trends suggest a more diverse clientele being served in Singapore than Kota Cina.In practically all categories and metrics, the STA material evinces greater variability despite the alleged longer habitation period at KTC. Although we should be forewarned of over-interpretation as STA buff and brittle-ware samples outnumber KTC ones two-to-one, this may suggest that the greater volume of trade seen at STA also correlates to a broader range of source markets, speaking to diversity not only of recipients but of producers in this transition through the "decentralised" period of Southeast Asian political history.There, of course, remain major exceptions — here, it is the titular "mercury jars" which prove a surprising contrast to the overall trend. Despite similar sample sizes, it is now the KTC mercury jars which show considerably more variability and outliers than the STA ones. Combined with the knowledge that the KTC-MER-A sherds demonstrate the retention of glazed jars into its period of habitation, this suggests that by STA's occupation that mercury jar production had become monopolised, likely by just one kiln, and further implies that whichever industry these jars facilitated had also similarly coalesced.<h3>Southeast Asia and China</h3>With regards to the exact relationship between the Southeast Asian material and the known products of Chinese kilns, the results of their comparison seem to fraught with contradictions despite the initial apparent compatibility of their technologies.For the most part, the body ceramics seen in KTC and STA, while divergent within Southeast Asia to some extent, are fairly conservative in their formulation vis-a-vis known Chinese ceramic formulae, minus the occasional outlier, some of which also fall within the range established by some of the Chinese stonewares.This contrasts considerably with the patterns seen in the glazes, in which despite sharing affinities in overall lime / lime-alkali flux formulation, the Southeast Asian sherds differ massively from Chinese norms with regards to magnesia and phosphoric content, not to mention the divergent proportions of iron-oxide colourants employed. Several causes for these dramatic divergences may be propounded:<ul><li>These are Chinese wares which have been glazed with formulae which have yet to be scientifically recorded.</li><li>These are ceramics which have managed to replicate Chinese ware, but use glazes of different flux formulation.<ul><li>Plant-ash flux formulae were chosen due to a lack of limestone in the region.</li><li>Plant-ash flux formulae were chosen due to prevailing ceramic technological traditions.</li></ul></li></ul>The second hypothesis may be dismissed due to the vast abundance of limestone seams and karsts in the region (Gillieson, 2005, 174). Between the other two hypotheses, the first is essentially an argument from lack of evidence; conversely, it is known that wood-ash glazes have employed extensively in Southeast Asia from at least the Angkorean period, lending weight to this theory (Miksic, 2009, 51).Ideally, a broader investigation utilising element quantification aimed at Southeast Asian stoneware bodies, along with wood-ash and limestone fluxes, would be able to provide a suitable corpus to compare these technologies. This would help to establish if the "Chinese" nature of the KTC and STA bodies may be accounted for by less distant kilns, in which case more questions are opened concerning how and where trade links fuelling the economies of these two sites truly lay in these critical centuries.

A Framework for the Study of “Mercury Jars” and Other Stoneware - Discussion (Comparison with Chinese Ceramics)

Semi-quantitative results from SEM-EDS on this dissertation's materials

A Framework for the Study of “Mercury Jars” and Other Stoneware - Quantitative Results

<h1>Results</h1><h2>Visual examination</h2><h3>Body fabrics</h3>One discriminant between fabric groups, evident both to those making ceramics and those studying them later, is that of colour, which is linked to the composition of the body fabric and its firing conditions.There were three major colour groups: reddish-pink, yellowish, and grey-white. Reddish-pink colouration, seen in KTC-BUF-A and STA-BRI-G (Figures 3.2, 3.3) may indicate the use of laterite, an iron-rich soil-type oxidising conditions within the kiln, or very strongly oxidising conditions without necessitating high ferrous content.Yellowish and grey-white fabrics may be used as a proxy for oxidising or reducing kiln conditions, with yellowish fabrics characteristic of the former and vice versa; compare and contrast STA-BUF-D and STA-BUF-E (Figure 3.1). Different colour grades may hence reflect the same body chemistry but different firing conditions (Hamer, 1975, 211-212;248). These conditions also have implications on the strength of the ceramics, as the yellowish fabrics were all more easily cut and snapped than the harder grey-white ones. Some sherds demonstrate both colour groups simultaneously, indicating that parts of the sherd were exposed to different conditions within the kiln.Another observed feature was iron spots, which appear as black dots. These are characteristic of iron oxide-rich areas which generate localised fluxing conditions, and emerge as crystallised areas on the fabric (Hamer, 1975, 165). These are common to most categories, but were particularly prevalent amongst the mercury jars (Figures 3.5, 3.6), suggesting that iron spots were not issues which led stoneware producers or distributors to reject them at any stage until their eventual discard, furthering the notion that stoneware fulfilled a basic commercial need and their appearance was not as treasured as contemporary porcelains.Some sherds stand out due to firing faults; some of which, such as those leading to erosion of the ceramic body, were so egregious that they were categorised separately into their own fabric group (e.g. STA-BRI-F and KTC-BRI-B; Figures 3.3, 3.4). Firing flaws may emerge for a variety of reasons, but premature vitrification caused by inappropriate firing schedules for a given composition is certainly a leading cause of bloated ceramics; it is therefore entirely possible to attain a range of quality for the same body chemistry based on varied firing conditions, and within the same kiln based on varied ceramic formulae fired therein (Hamer, 1975, 27-28).Evidently, the broad variety in quality seen in this corpus lends weight to the concept that stonewares were given less priority, at least on the end of the recipient, in terms of superficial appearance and further underscores their role as "trade wares" whose form was secondary to the function of bringing goods from source to destination.<h3>Glazes</h3>This corpus demonstrates glazes of numerous colours and applications, and curiously enough contains numerous sherds with glazed interiors.While the aesthetic quality of exterior glazes is self-evident, the labour and material expenditure made whilst glazing interiors, as seen in STA buff wares and KTC-BUF-C and D (Figures 3.1, 3.2) raises questions as to motives for doing so. While glaze is one means of waterproofing or sealing the interior of earthenwares, stonewares ought to be sufficiently hard to avoid necessitating glazes for this function. Aesthetically speaking, glazes may be used to conceal coarse body fabrics, with the extremely thick Southern Song Guan ware glazes masking wafer-thin body fabrics as an extreme manifestation of this trend (Wood and Li, 2015, 628-629).Overall, based on the limited sample available from both sites, there appears to be a strong continuity of technology between the sites, but a wider range of artistic expression in terms of glazes is evident in KTC whilst the wares in STA demonstrate less variation. These may be reflective of changes in ceramic fashion over time, or differences between localities; the former is perhaps more likely than the latter given the prominence of Singapore relative to Kota Cina, but it remains to be seen if these visual differences also manifest in compositional recipes; these can be examined through SEM-microprobe analysis.The STA glazes are generally reddish-brown. The KTC material demonstrates a greater range of colours between and within its sherds. The KTC ware demonstrates a trend not seen in STA; namely, sherds with different glazes on their interiors and exteriors.This trend suggests possibilities which range from wholly different initial compositions applied to the opposite sides, to variable exposures to oxidising or reducing conditions or temperatures, to differently applied thicknesses of the same glaze, to any combination of the above. At any rate, this curious decision bears further investigation via SEM into its production and potential reasons for such a technological choice.The STA corpus also contains slipped ware and several sherds in STA-BUF-C with a distinctly opaque layer on top of the body. This unique grey surface treatment deserves study unto itself under the SEM and electron-microprobe to unpack the technologies involved in its production.None of the mercury jars, be they at STA or KTC, seemingly possessed any glaze; however, the sherds of KTC-MER-A (Figure 3.6) all have a consistent yellowish surface which may be indicative of a degraded glaze; semi-quantification elemental comparison with the body-glaze interfaces of other sherds would be necessary to determine if this is the case.<h2>XRF analysis</h2>The analysis was undertaken with the specific intention of finding mercury or mercury­ vapour which might have leached onto the coarse surfaces of the mercury jars. Of the 40 mercury jar sherds analysed with the XRF, none of them returned any mercury peaks. This leads to one of two conclusions:<ol><li>There is no mercury to be found on the interior surfaces of the mercury jars, indicating there is no physical evidence for their use for containerising mercury.</li><li>If there is mercury retained on the interior surfaces of the mercury jars, it is in concentrations which are not easily detectable by XRF, i.e. its presence is at &lt;0.2 to 1 weight% at its most optimistic for relatively unprepared samples such as these (Pollard and Heron, 2008, 44)</li></ol>These results demonstrate at the very least that XRF cannot be used in this fashion to prove that these vessels contained mercury, perhaps necessitating its identification via SEM-microprobe analysis, which would be able to identify mercury-rich phases via backscatter imaging as mercury's high atomic number would be reflected as a bright tincture on the rendered image (Reed, 2005, 54-57). As SEM-microprobe analysis is more time-consuming and requires more preparation than XRF, this is unfortunate news for future researchers who may wish to resolve this question but are short on time or resources for dedicated microprobe analysis.Otherwise, we may potentially turn to other forms of higher-resolution elemental analysis such as mass spectrometry, which are able to discern much lower elemental concentrations (Pollard and Heron, 2008, 27-31). As for the other potential contents such as wine, organic residues cannot be discerned by either XRF or SEM-microprobe analyses; liquid, gas or supercritical fluid chromatography would be far more suitable for this task (Pollard and Heron, 2008, 66-74).<h2>SEM</h2><h3>Semi-quantification calibration</h3>As mentioned in Section 3.3.5, I have opted for semi-quantification compositional analysis due to the relative coarseness of this material, as full quantification would not discern meaningful enough amounts of detail to justify the extent of this measure. A necessary component of SEM studies is the determination of the length of time for which backscatter electrons are measured. Ideally, it should strike a balance between the rigorousness demanded of the project and the constraints of time to perform analyses on all desired samples.I opted to test if resolution improves appreciably from 30s to 50s to 100s, utilising the first set of body-fabric samples in STA-MER-B.<table><tbody><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">Sherd</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">Count time (s)</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">Al2O3%</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">sd</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">K2O%</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">sd</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">Fe2O3%</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">sd</td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">STA-MER-03</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">30</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">19.7</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">0.6</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">3.5</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">0.3</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">2.3</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">0.1</td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">&nbsp;</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">50</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">19.5</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">0.5</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">3.6</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">0.2</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">2.3</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">0.1</td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">&nbsp;</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">100</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">19.5</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">0.4</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">3.6</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">0.2</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">2.3</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">0.2</td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">means of all counts</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">&nbsp;</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">19.6</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">0.1</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">3.5</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">&lt;0.1</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">2.3</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">&lt;0.1</td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">STA-MER-04</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">30</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">20.3</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">0.3</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">3.2</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">0.1</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">2.0</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">0.1</td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">&nbsp;</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">50</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">20.4</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">0.1</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">3.2</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">0.1</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">1.9</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">&lt;0.1</td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">&nbsp;</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">100</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">20.3</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">0.2</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">3.1</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">&lt;0.1</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">2.0</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">0.1</td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">means of all counts</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">&nbsp;</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">20.3</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">&lt;0.1</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">3.2</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">&lt;0.1</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">1.9</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">&lt;0.1</td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">STA-MER-05</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">30</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">20.4</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">0.4</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">3.2</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">0.1</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">2.2</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">&lt;0.1</td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">&nbsp;</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">50</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">20.3</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">0.4</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">3.2</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">0.1</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">2.3</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">0.1</td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">&nbsp;</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">100</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">20.4</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">0.4</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">3.2</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">0.1</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">2.2</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">0.1</td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">means of all counts</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">&nbsp;</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">20.4</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">&lt;0.1</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">3.2</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">&lt;0.1</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">2.2</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">0.1</td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">STA-MER-B</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">30</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">20.1</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">0.5</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">3.3</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">0.2</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">2.1</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">0.1</td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">(fabric group)</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">50</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">20.1</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">0.6</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">3.3</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">0.2</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">2.2</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">0.2</td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">&nbsp;</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">100</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">20.1</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">0.5</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">3.3</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">0.2</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">2.2</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">0.2</td></tr><tr><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">means of all counts</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">&nbsp;</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">20.1</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">&lt;0.1</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">3.3</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">&lt;0.1</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">2.2</td><td colspan="1" rowspan="1">&lt;0.1</td></tr></tbody></table>Table 4.6: Means and standard deviations of semi-quantitative measurements in STA­ MER-B body fabrics (averaged from four SEM views: 1 ·100 x, 3 · 250 x) as a test for count time, reported in compound% as normalised via stoichiometry in INCA.Evidently, there is little to be gained by doubling count time from 50s to 100s, although despite time constraints, it was decided to remain at 50s due to the difficulties in picking up on minor elements within the 30s timeframe.<h3>SEM&nbsp; micro-textural examination</h3>As this form of analysis involves both qualitative and (semi-)quantitative aspects, I shall first outline some of the observed features within the ceramic micro-textures.<h3>Phases and features</h3>I was only able to do this form of in-depth analysis for the STA sherds within the time-frame allotted for an MSc dissertation; although I had intended to continue this same methodology with the KTC sherds it was apparent that the process of browsing through the sherd surface and collecting individual microprobe readings would result in very little time left for meaningful bulk analysis; as all compositional data was routed through the same two terminals, it was impossible to concurrently achieve these aims.I would not presume that my cataloguing of these features is in any way exhaustive as identification of these phases is ultimately subject to the attentiveness of the SEM operator and their ability to discern meaningful variations in micro-texture.Nevertheless, the presence or absence of certain features has the potential, in skilled hands, to reveal a great deal about the formation and firing of ceramics. It may be hoped that my findings will demonstrate the utility of this qualitative visual­ based analysis and spur further work on ceramics studies at this resolution.The following were observed:•&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Iron crystals, already indicative of concentrations of the element and its oxides, are termed "secondary" if they are produced during the cooling phase of ceramic production and are hence indicative of a longer cooling cycle as these require time to emerge. These may be associated with iron spots if these concentrations are drawn to the surface during reduction firing.•&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The following are associated with physical and chemical transformations which occur as the vessel approaches vitrification:Total vitrification, denoted by the presence of bubbles in the fabric, has implications on the strength and stability of the body fabric and is often indicative of high concentrations of fluxing agents such as potassium.Mullite is an aluminium-rich crystalline mineral which may be formed during firing, and is considered "refractory" as it appreciably improves the thermal shock resistance of body fabrics. Its presence may suggest an enhanced knowledge of chemical recipes in ceramics.&nbsp;

A Framework for the Study of “Mercury Jars” and Other Stoneware - Results (non-quant)

<h1>Method</h1>As this project is aimed at discerning variation on a range of scales, it is only appropriate that the sherds are examined on a set of increasing resolutions.<h2>Organisation</h2>In order to logically organise these sherds and permit further sorting and characterisation, I consulted with Mr. Antonis Dimopoulos, a DPhil candidate pursuing ancient DNA research at RLAHA, and enquired as to the suitability of the MySQL database which he was employing to organise his ancient DNA samples. Finding it to be appropriate, I readily adopted his system with help from Mr. Devesh Batra, a DPhil candidate at the Oxford Big Data Institute, utilising the MySQL graphics user interface Sequel ProUnder this system, sherds and subsequent subsamples may be associated with multiple data sheets containing information about their fabric group, colour, compositional sample, microstructure, etc. The database permits the recording of these aforementioned properties, and also enables quick referencing from one sheet to another through indices, and its one-to-one and one-to-many capabilities have proved invaluable in documenting these features.<h2>Visual examination</h2>The first step in this project was to sort the sherds into the various fabric groups. These fabric groups were also intended to facilitate subsequent steps such as sub-sampling and SEM analysis. Groups were made first by similarity in glazes and then body fabrics, such that the glazes could all be studied together.This may lead to greater heterogeneity within the glazed fabric groups than the unglazed groups as the same glazes may have been applied on multiple body compositions; compositional analysis may hence reveal if this is the case, or if sherds intended for the same glaze were all made together.A Munsell colour-chart was employed to objectively quantify the various observable body fabrics, as is common in archaeological ceramic studies (Whitbread, 2017, 203); Stulemeijer (2011) employs this methodology in his characterisation of Singaporean greenwares, for example. All of the sherds were measured in this way, then those which were sub-sampled, with new colour measurements taken from the freshly-sawn surfaces.<h2>X-Ray Fluorescence</h2>XRF was selected as a means to study the contents of mercury jars. Although the mechanical properties of elemental mercury such as its non-wetting nature at room temperature (Aligizaki, 2005, 61) probably dictate otherwise, prolonged containerisation of mercury in these relatively porous wares might have resulted in its retention as mercury vapour; Raman spectroscopy is able to detect cinnabar residues on archaeological pottery (Mioč et al., 2004), and XRF analysis is able to detect mercury in Mexican gall-ink (García et al., 2014), as well as mercury-vapour in modern contaminated soils (McComb et al., 2014).Benefits of XRF in this context were the relative ease of its use and availability within RLAHA, and its not requiring any destructive sub-sampling. Both the interior and exterior surfaces of the mercury jars were analysed (for a standardised period of at least 360 seconds) to reduce the possibility of false positives; if unambiguous mercury peaks could be identified this methodology would be extended to the rest of the corpus.<h2>Sub-sampling</h2>Lengths were cut from the larger sherds using a coarse saw (and selected sherds with a diamond-wafer fine saw thereafter) and left to dry, with the samples intended for SEM analysis subsequently snapped using a pair of pliers. Cutting fresh sections of the sherds permitted a more accurate measurement of the body fabric, as the newly exposed surface has been subject to fewer taphonomic processes. Glazed sherds required cutting with a fine saw to ensure that glazes were on the same plane as the rest of the sherd.<h2>Scanning electron microscope (SEM) – Electron microprobe analysis</h2>Sherd fragments were then ground down to ensure flatness, and then embedded into epoxy resin to permit their study within the SEM, a technique whose chief strengths are its ability to collect high-resolution data concerning the micro-texture and elemental composition of properly prepared ceramic sherds (Tite et al., 1982). A vacuum chamber was used to extract the bubbles from the epoxy, and then the resin containing the sherds were ground and polished before being carbon-coated to avoid surfaces being charged by exposure to the electron beam and thus becoming unable to reflect a coherent signal (Reed, 2005, 156-157).Once inside the JSM-5910 SEM, the electron beam was used to generate images of the microstructure of the sherd fragments in secondary emissions mode; as the brightness of backscatter-emissions is a function of the atomic number of the area being scanned, it was used as an proxy for the variations in atomic masses across the study area (Reed, 2005, 54-57).Looking at the generated backscatter image, I utilised the analysis software INCA 5.05, to generate target areas by drawing rectangles or polygons on its render, and hence measure the electron signal returned from the sherd surface of these areas in semi-quantification mode, following the example of Tite et al. (1982); due to the roughness of the surfaces being studied, full quantification is desirable or feasible (Loehman, 2010, 271).Composition was measured in conditions of 15kV and 1mA using one 100x view at the centre (approx. 1.4mm2) and three 250x views (approx. 0.2mm2) at the centre and diagonally opposite corners of sherds, avoiding phases which could bias measurements such as large silicon/quartz grains or brightly-rendered crystals. Individual features were then targeted, measured and recorded. Glazes were measured by sampling three areas: the contiguously bright glaze areas the more porous body fabric, and the interface connecting them.

A Framework for the Study of “Mercury Jars” and Other Stoneware - Method

StonewareStoneware is divided by both Heng (2009) and Miksic (2013) into “fine” and “coarse” material. As “coarse” material is typified as “functional ware”, it lacks the attention porcelain garners, but also cannot be studied as easily as earthenware using mineralogy due to the filtering out of characteristic minerals during stoneware clay production and depletion of such minerals during their firing (Reedy, 2008,113-117).This state of affairs is summarised thusly by Miksic (2013):<blockquote>The stonewares from Singapore still remain to be analyzed in detail. This is an important if somewhat prosaic task.</blockquote>If stoneware cannot be correlated to sequences as readily as porcelain, nor can it be studied like earthenware with this wealth of mineralogical knowledge, what lines of evidence ought to be best pursued? We must (as we have done for the other ceramics) first discuss what variability is evident to the naked eye, then turn to their chemistry and microstructure to explore further lines of evidence which we may use to characterise these “trade wares”.Stoneware forms and classificationMiksic (2013) associates “fine” and “coarse” stoneware with the broad categories of “buff” and “brittle” ware, and concurs with Heng (2009) in associating these different types of stoneware with different production sites, forms and functions; however, he also emphasises that these two categories, although easily differentiated, also have considerable variation within them. As both publications lack visual aids, it is difficult to evaluate the coherence of these equivalences. Nevertheless, this broad categorisation is an organic starting-point for visual examination, as differences are obvious to the naked eye of both the potter and the eventual examiner of such material.Heng (2009) elaborates upon the economics of this “buff-brittle” dichotomy, noting that the trade in high-value “fine” ware increased in volume and proportion during the post-Srivijayan fragmentation as consumers within the Malay Archipelago engaged in direct trade with the Imperial Chinese kilns, moving away from provincial-level trade dominated by “coarse ware”.Buff ware or “fine” ware, is characterised by a lack of temper or other non-plastic inclusions, and may be associated with a brown glaze, and also apparently manifests in a greater variety of forms and shapes than brittle ware (Miksic, 2013, 322). Its production is associated by both Heng (2009) and Miksic (2013) with the Guangdong and Fujian kilns, which allegedly represent “national”-level production.Brittle ware or “coarse” ware, is characterised by the presence of these inclusions; Miksic (2013) theorises that these permit firing at higher temperatures than the buff wares, which is true as far as sand is concerned, but obviously varies depending on the nature of the inclusions (Hamer, 1975, 149). These are generally taken to be fairly uniform storage jars and are defines by Heng (2009) as the “second level” of Chinese-driven trade in this period.Mercury jars or “bottles” are considered by Miksic (2013) to be a type of brittle ware due to their relatively heterogeneous composition, and are present within the region throughout the occupational period of both Kota Cina and Singapore. Mercury jars are characterised by their narrow bases, tapered sides leading to broad shoulders which close up to a fairly narrow mouth. Wong (2016) has gathered data from kiln and deposit sites to sequence the evolution of these jars (Figure 1.2).Despite their ubiquity in the region, the contents of mercury jars curiously still remain an unresolved debate. The relative lack of heed paid to refining their body fabrics have led both Miksic (2013) and Wong (2016) to conclude that their unique shape must relate more to functionality than artistry, but the authors sharply differ following this point. Miksic (2013) and Wong (2016) both invoke metallurgical wisdom, the former concluding that the shape of the vessels would have lent strength and stability to them, and permitted them to containerise the dense liquid with the narrow opening preventing toxic mercury from escaping, whilst the latter states that the wide shoulders and narrow necks of the bottles would instead have rendered the mercury within susceptible to overflowing.Wong (2016) notes that mercury mining and mercury jar production areas did not correlate; Miksic (2013) suggests that they were brought together in an intermediate location prior to being shipped out to consumers.As regards the utility of mercury in the region, the metal has historically been widely traded in China and Southeast Asia, and was used in the metallurgical extraction of gold and gilding of copper, alongside medicinal purposes recorded in ancient texts; mercury and its ore, cinnabar, were also highly symbolic in contemporary Chinese mysticism (Miksic, 2013, 316-318).Further complicating the issue is the known reuses of these durable, widely produced, bottles for other particulate or liquid goods. Wong (2016) concedes that these vessels might have been initially used to containerise mercury, but focuses on parallels to wine jars and Southeast Asian demand for Chinese wine to construct an argument for their employment within this trade, a conclusion also reached by (Heng, 2009); wine is acknowledged as a potential substance transported within these bottles by Miksic (2013), who nevertheless emphasises that the shape of these vessels speaks to a singular initial purpose, as opposed to a generic container.Chemistry of high-fired ceramicsEarthenware, stoneware and porcelain are generally differentiated by the firing temperatures of the ceramics, which are governed by their chemical compositions to a large extent (Pollard and Heron, 2008, 115-118).Some of the more important oxides involved in ceramic firing are those of aluminium, iron, and potassium, with silicon-based grains and clays forming most of the balance (Pollard and Heron, 2008, 117). Aluminium oxides are considered “refractory” and permit firing at higher temperatures (Hamer, 1975, 249); on the whole, porcelain contains more aluminium content than stoneware and stoneware likewise contains more than earthenware (Pollard and Heron, 2008, 117-118).These refractory properties are engaged during vitrification, or the state at which the fluxes within the body interact with the heat of the kiln and the ceramic fabric weakens as the silica melts and flows between individual clay particles. Here it is alumina which acts as the chief determinant of the matrix’s thermal shock resistance; effects of other oxides range from the beneficial lime and potash which contribute to slow and prolonged vitrification to permit the slow filling of these gaps, to those of iron oxide, which instead prematurely encourage total vitrification, which left unchecked can lead to bloating of the body fabric and in the worst situations the total failure of the vessel being fired as its weight causes the weakened structure to collapse upon itself (Hamer, 1975, 27-28;201-202;311).Ceramic body colours are direct products of the balances necessary to achieve success in these various firing conditions. In general pink-orange earthenware fabric results from the oxidation of its ferrous components whereas greyish-black fabrics and the classic black colouration of Attic pottery are the result of firing in reducing conditions (Hamer, 1975, 247-248); green-white and white porcelains are products of refined kaolinite fabric and glazes, and the reducing conditions under which they were fired (Hamilton, 1982, 40-41). Porousness and particulate composition of these fabrics also influence their strength and hardness (Hamer, 1975, 77-85).In summary, stoneware encompasses high-fired ceramics distinguished from porcelain by relatively low alumina content, and more heterogeneous microstructure (Hamer, 1975, 285-286; Pollard and Heron, 2008, 117-118). Their relatively tough but “coarse” fabric lend themselves to their observed uses in mass-produced storage and transport vessels. Normally, their status as high-fired ceramics would imply contact with facilities mixing clays in the correct proportions or areas with naturally amenable existing rocks and sediments such as Southern China, but Southeast Asia also contains numerous amenable clays (Hamilton, 1982, 34; Wood, 1999, 28).Chemistry of ceramic glazesA common ceramic decoration is glaze: the application of a layer of material which liquefies under heat to form a glassy surface. This effect may occur either during the firing of the moulded clay (“raw glazing”) or on separately, after once the body is already fired (“biscuit firing”); see Figure 1.4 (Hamer, 1975, 24-25;144-147).As the total vitrification of the glaze is desired, the required properties of the glaze fabric differ from those of the ceramic body. A key ingredient is fluxing agents: alkaline oxides which adjust the melting point of the silica-rich matrix and enable this total vitrification. Some common fluxing agents are sodium, calcium, potassium, magnesium, iron and lead oxides (Hamer, 1975, 132-133;144-147). These alkaline oxides must be extracted from organic sources or selectively mined, and thus glazes reflect the resource areas to which production sites had access. Lime, a common fluxing agent in Southern Chinese glazes, is derived fromplant ash or limestone (Wood, 1999, 29-33). Another crucial fluxing agent is potash; this appears to be an indigenous Chinese innovation, especially popular during the 13th–14th centuries (Wood, 1999, 216). Lead oxides are easily derived from many ores and lend themselves well to low-fired glazes, and have been employed in Chinese glazes since the Warring States period (Wood, 1999, 191).Besides fluxing agents, another crucial component of glazes is their colourants, other oxides which alter their reflected colours. Iron is particularly versatile in this latter role, being able to produce a multitude of colours with different reflective properties depending on firing conditions (Hamer, 1975, 160-165;206) (Hamilton, 1982, 113-117). These properties were known to, and extensively exploited by, Chinese potters (Wood, 1999, 164).These glazes have been documented in great detail by Wood (1999). While the focus is on porcelain, the glazes represented within this corpus are representative of the technologies and raw materials available to Chinese potters of these times. Wood (1999)’s derivation of the various oxides and their proportions will be highly instructive in the elemental analysis of the glazes seen in Singapore and Kota Cina.

A Framework for the Study of “Mercury Jars” and Other Stoneware - Rationale/Hypothesis

Aims<ul><li>To what extent is the visual variation within and between the “Buff Ware”, “Brittle Ware” and “Mercury Jars” at both sites also evident in their microstructure and elemental composition?<ul><li>Can we infer differences in production (raw material, quality control, techniques) from these variations?</li></ul></li><li>To what extent can we observe variation in ceramic fabrics and compositions between 12th–14th century Kota Cina and 14th–15th century Singapore on any of these levels, and infer differences in stoneware production and trade dynamics, vis-à-vis Chinese ceramic industries?</li><li>Can we discern if “Mercury jars” contained mercury, by identifying traces of mercury on their interior surfaces?</li></ul>In addition to these research questions, the lack of previous study of stoneware on this resolution suggests a need to develop a framework to enable further research concerning ceramic production and distribution on this overlooked body of material. This may prove useful not merely for the wealth of stoneware currently stored within the NUS-NTU Archaeological Laboratory, but for numerous other contemporary vessels and sherds which generally are only broadly classified as “trade wares”.

Research aims for this Master's Dissertation

A Framework for the Study of “Mercury Jars” and Other Stoneware - Research Problem

Scanning Electron Microscope Analysis of 12th-16th Century Stoneware and Porcelain in the Archaeology of Singapore and Kota Cina in Sumatra, and Its Implications

SEM-EDS Analysis and Elemental Composition Study of Stoneware Glazes from and 12th to 14th-century Kota Cina, Sumatra and the Temasek Period of Singapore, Alongside Glaze Formulae from Song, Yuan and Ming Chinese Kilns

A Framework for the Study of “Mercury Jars” and Other Stoneware from the Temasek Period of Singapore, alongside 12th to 14th-century Stoneware from Kota Cina, Sumatra

Organisation	Degree/title	Department	Start date	End date
Nanyang Technological University	PhD History	Not specified	2018
University of Oxford	Masters in Archaeological Science	Not specified	2016	2017
University College London	BSc Archaeology	Not specified	2013	2016

Title	DOI	Published date
Scanning Electron Microscope Analysis of 12th-16th Century Stoneware and Porcelain in the Archaeology of Singapore and Kota Cina in Sumatra, and Its Implications	No DOI available.	2023-10-10
SEM-EDS Analysis and Elemental Composition Study of Stoneware Glazes from and 12th to 14th-century Kota Cina, Sumatra and the Temasek Period of Singapore, Alongside Glaze Formulae from Song, Yuan and Ming Chinese Kilns	No DOI available.	2020
A Framework for the Study of “Mercury Jars” and Other Stoneware from the Temasek Period of Singapore, alongside 12th to 14th-century Stoneware from Kota Cina, Sumatra	No DOI available.	2017
A Framework for the Study of “Mercury Jars” and Other Stoneware from the Temasek Period of Singapore, alongside 12th to 14th-century Stoneware from Kota Cina, Sumatra	No DOI available.

Alasdair Chi

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